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- By Rose Teteki Abbey, K. C. Abraham, David Tuesday Adamo, LeRoy H. Aden, Efrain Agosto, Victor Aguilan, Gillian T. W. Ahlgren, Charanjit Kaur AjitSingh, Dorothy B E A Akoto, Giuseppe Alberigo, Daniel E. Albrecht, Ruth Albrecht, Daniel O. Aleshire, Urs Altermatt, Anand Amaladass, Michael Amaladoss, James N. Amanze, Lesley G. Anderson, Thomas C. Anderson, Victor Anderson, Hope S. Antone, María Pilar Aquino, Paula Arai, Victorio Araya Guillén, S. Wesley Ariarajah, Ellen T. Armour, Brett Gregory Armstrong, Atsuhiro Asano, Naim Stifan Ateek, Mahmoud Ayoub, John Alembillah Azumah, Mercedes L. García Bachmann, Irena Backus, J. Wayne Baker, Mieke Bal, Lewis V. Baldwin, William Barbieri, António Barbosa da Silva, David Basinger, Bolaji Olukemi Bateye, Oswald Bayer, Daniel H. Bays, Rosalie Beck, Nancy Elizabeth Bedford, Guy-Thomas Bedouelle, Chorbishop Seely Beggiani, Wolfgang Behringer, Christopher M. Bellitto, Byard Bennett, Harold V. Bennett, Teresa Berger, Miguel A. Bernad, Henley Bernard, Alan E. Bernstein, Jon L. Berquist, Johannes Beutler, Ana María Bidegain, Matthew P. Binkewicz, Jennifer Bird, Joseph Blenkinsopp, Dmytro Bondarenko, Paulo Bonfatti, Riet en Pim Bons-Storm, Jessica A. Boon, Marcus J. Borg, Mark Bosco, Peter C. Bouteneff, François Bovon, William D. Bowman, Paul S. Boyer, David Brakke, Richard E. Brantley, Marcus Braybrooke, Ian Breward, Ênio José da Costa Brito, Jewel Spears Brooker, Johannes Brosseder, Nicholas Canfield Read Brown, Robert F. Brown, Pamela K. Brubaker, Walter Brueggemann, Bishop Colin O. Buchanan, Stanley M. Burgess, Amy Nelson Burnett, J. Patout Burns, David B. Burrell, David Buttrick, James P. Byrd, Lavinia Byrne, Gerado Caetano, Marcos Caldas, Alkiviadis Calivas, William J. Callahan, Salvatore Calomino, Euan K. Cameron, William S. Campbell, Marcelo Ayres Camurça, Daniel F. Caner, Paul E. Capetz, Carlos F. Cardoza-Orlandi, Patrick W. Carey, Barbara Carvill, Hal Cauthron, Subhadra Mitra Channa, Mark D. Chapman, James H. Charlesworth, Kenneth R. Chase, Chen Zemin, Luciano Chianeque, Philip Chia Phin Yin, Francisca H. Chimhanda, Daniel Chiquete, John T. Chirban, Soobin Choi, Robert Choquette, Mita Choudhury, Gerald Christianson, John Chryssavgis, Sejong Chun, Esther Chung-Kim, Charles M. A. Clark, Elizabeth A. Clark, Sathianathan Clarke, Fred Cloud, John B. Cobb, W. Owen Cole, John A Coleman, John J. Collins, Sylvia Collins-Mayo, Paul K. Conkin, Beth A. Conklin, Sean Connolly, Demetrios J. Constantelos, Michael A. Conway, Paula M. Cooey, Austin Cooper, Michael L. Cooper-White, Pamela Cooper-White, L. William Countryman, Sérgio Coutinho, Pamela Couture, Shannon Craigo-Snell, James L. Crenshaw, David Crowner, Humberto Horacio Cucchetti, Lawrence S. Cunningham, Elizabeth Mason Currier, Emmanuel Cutrone, Mary L. Daniel, David D. Daniels, Robert Darden, Rolf Darge, Isaiah Dau, Jeffry C. Davis, Jane Dawson, Valentin Dedji, John W. de Gruchy, Paul DeHart, Wendy J. Deichmann Edwards, Miguel A. De La Torre, George E. Demacopoulos, Thomas de Mayo, Leah DeVun, Beatriz de Vasconcellos Dias, Dennis C. Dickerson, John M. Dillon, Luis Miguel Donatello, Igor Dorfmann-Lazarev, Susanna Drake, Jonathan A. Draper, N. Dreher Martin, Otto Dreydoppel, Angelyn Dries, A. J. Droge, Francis X. D'Sa, Marilyn Dunn, Nicole Wilkinson Duran, Rifaat Ebied, Mark J. Edwards, William H. Edwards, Leonard H. Ehrlich, Nancy L. Eiesland, Martin Elbel, J. Harold Ellens, Stephen Ellingson, Marvin M. Ellison, Robert Ellsberg, Jean Bethke Elshtain, Eldon Jay Epp, Peter C. Erb, Tassilo Erhardt, Maria Erling, Noel Leo Erskine, Gillian R. Evans, Virginia Fabella, Michael A. Fahey, Edward Farley, Margaret A. Farley, Wendy Farley, Robert Fastiggi, Seena Fazel, Duncan S. Ferguson, Helwar Figueroa, Paul Corby Finney, Kyriaki Karidoyanes FitzGerald, Thomas E. FitzGerald, John R. Fitzmier, Marie Therese Flanagan, Sabina Flanagan, Claude Flipo, Ronald B. Flowers, Carole Fontaine, David Ford, Mary Ford, Stephanie A. Ford, Jim Forest, William Franke, Robert M. Franklin, Ruth Franzén, Edward H. Friedman, Samuel Frouisou, Lorelei F. Fuchs, Jojo M. Fung, Inger Furseth, Richard R. Gaillardetz, Brandon Gallaher, China Galland, Mark Galli, Ismael García, Tharscisse Gatwa, Jean-Marie Gaudeul, Luis María Gavilanes del Castillo, Pavel L. Gavrilyuk, Volney P. Gay, Metropolitan Athanasios Geevargis, Kondothra M. George, Mary Gerhart, Simon Gikandi, Maurice Gilbert, Michael J. Gillgannon, Verónica Giménez Beliveau, Terryl Givens, Beth Glazier-McDonald, Philip Gleason, Menghun Goh, Brian Golding, Bishop Hilario M. Gomez, Michelle A. Gonzalez, Donald K. Gorrell, Roy Gottfried, Tamara Grdzelidze, Joel B. Green, Niels Henrik Gregersen, Cristina Grenholm, Herbert Griffiths, Eric W. Gritsch, Erich S. Gruen, Christoffer H. Grundmann, Paul H. Gundani, Jon P. Gunnemann, Petre Guran, Vidar L. Haanes, Jeremiah M. Hackett, Getatchew Haile, Douglas John Hall, Nicholas Hammond, Daphne Hampson, Jehu J. Hanciles, Barry Hankins, Jennifer Haraguchi, Stanley S. Harakas, Anthony John Harding, Conrad L. Harkins, J. William Harmless, Marjory Harper, Amir Harrak, Joel F. Harrington, Mark W. Harris, Susan Ashbrook Harvey, Van A. Harvey, R. Chris Hassel, Jione Havea, Daniel Hawk, Diana L. Hayes, Leslie Hayes, Priscilla Hayner, S. Mark Heim, Simo Heininen, Richard P. Heitzenrater, Eila Helander, David Hempton, Scott H. Hendrix, Jan-Olav Henriksen, Gina Hens-Piazza, Carter Heyward, Nicholas J. Higham, David Hilliard, Norman A. Hjelm, Peter C. Hodgson, Arthur Holder, M. Jan Holton, Dwight N. Hopkins, Ronnie Po-chia Hsia, Po-Ho Huang, James Hudnut-Beumler, Jennifer S. Hughes, Leonard M. Hummel, Mary E. Hunt, Laennec Hurbon, Mark Hutchinson, Susan E. Hylen, Mary Beth Ingham, H. Larry Ingle, Dale T. Irvin, Jon Isaak, Paul John Isaak, Ada María Isasi-Díaz, Hans Raun Iversen, Margaret C. Jacob, Arthur James, Maria Jansdotter-Samuelsson, David Jasper, Werner G. Jeanrond, Renée Jeffery, David Lyle Jeffrey, Theodore W. Jennings, David H. Jensen, Robin Margaret Jensen, David Jobling, Dale A. Johnson, Elizabeth A. Johnson, Maxwell E. Johnson, Sarah Johnson, Mark D. Johnston, F. Stanley Jones, James William Jones, John R. Jones, Alissa Jones Nelson, Inge Jonsson, Jan Joosten, Elizabeth Judd, Mulambya Peggy Kabonde, Robert Kaggwa, Sylvester Kahakwa, Isaac Kalimi, Ogbu U. Kalu, Eunice Kamaara, Wayne C. Kannaday, Musimbi Kanyoro, Veli-Matti Kärkkäinen, Frank Kaufmann, Léon Nguapitshi Kayongo, Richard Kearney, Alice A. Keefe, Ralph Keen, Catherine Keller, Anthony J. Kelly, Karen Kennelly, Kathi Lynn Kern, Fergus Kerr, Edward Kessler, George Kilcourse, Heup Young Kim, Kim Sung-Hae, Kim Yong-Bock, Kim Yung Suk, Richard King, Thomas M. King, Robert M. Kingdon, Ross Kinsler, Hans G. Kippenberg, Cheryl A. Kirk-Duggan, Clifton Kirkpatrick, Leonid Kishkovsky, Nadieszda Kizenko, Jeffrey Klaiber, Hans-Josef Klauck, Sidney Knight, Samuel Kobia, Robert Kolb, Karla Ann Koll, Heikki Kotila, Donald Kraybill, Philip D. W. Krey, Yves Krumenacker, Jeffrey Kah-Jin Kuan, Simanga R. Kumalo, Peter Kuzmic, Simon Shui-Man Kwan, Kwok Pui-lan, André LaCocque, Stephen E. Lahey, John Tsz Pang Lai, Emiel Lamberts, Armando Lampe, Craig Lampe, Beverly J. Lanzetta, Eve LaPlante, Lizette Larson-Miller, Ariel Bybee Laughton, Leonard Lawlor, Bentley Layton, Robin A. Leaver, Karen Lebacqz, Archie Chi Chung Lee, Marilyn J. Legge, Hervé LeGrand, D. L. LeMahieu, Raymond Lemieux, Bill J. Leonard, Ellen M. Leonard, Outi Leppä, Jean Lesaulnier, Nantawan Boonprasat Lewis, Henrietta Leyser, Alexei Lidov, Bernard Lightman, Paul Chang-Ha Lim, Carter Lindberg, Mark R. Lindsay, James R. Linville, James C. Livingston, Ann Loades, David Loades, Jean-Claude Loba-Mkole, Lo Lung Kwong, Wati Longchar, Eleazar López, David W. Lotz, Andrew Louth, Robin W. Lovin, William Luis, Frank D. Macchia, Diarmaid N. J. MacCulloch, Kirk R. MacGregor, Marjory A. MacLean, Donald MacLeod, Tomas S. Maddela, Inge Mager, Laurenti Magesa, David G. Maillu, Fortunato Mallimaci, Philip Mamalakis, Kä Mana, Ukachukwu Chris Manus, Herbert Robinson Marbury, Reuel Norman Marigza, Jacqueline Mariña, Antti Marjanen, Luiz C. L. Marques, Madipoane Masenya (ngwan'a Mphahlele), Caleb J. D. Maskell, Steve Mason, Thomas Massaro, Fernando Matamoros Ponce, András Máté-Tóth, Odair Pedroso Mateus, Dinis Matsolo, Fumitaka Matsuoka, John D'Arcy May, Yelena Mazour-Matusevich, Theodore Mbazumutima, John S. McClure, Christian McConnell, Lee Martin McDonald, Gary B. McGee, Thomas McGowan, Alister E. McGrath, Richard J. McGregor, John A. McGuckin, Maud Burnett McInerney, Elsie Anne McKee, Mary B. McKinley, James F. McMillan, Ernan McMullin, Kathleen E. McVey, M. Douglas Meeks, Monica Jyotsna Melanchthon, Ilie Melniciuc-Puica, Everett Mendoza, Raymond A. Mentzer, William W. Menzies, Ina Merdjanova, Franziska Metzger, Constant J. Mews, Marvin Meyer, Carol Meyers, Vasile Mihoc, Gunner Bjerg Mikkelsen, Maria Inêz de Castro Millen, Clyde Lee Miller, Bonnie J. Miller-McLemore, Alexander Mirkovic, Paul Misner, Nozomu Miyahira, R. W. L. Moberly, Gerald Moede, Aloo Osotsi Mojola, Sunanda Mongia, Rebeca Montemayor, James Moore, Roger E. Moore, Craig E. Morrison O.Carm, Jeffry H. Morrison, Keith Morrison, Wilson J. Moses, Tefetso Henry Mothibe, Mokgethi Motlhabi, Fulata Moyo, Henry Mugabe, Jesse Ndwiga Kanyua Mugambi, Peggy Mulambya-Kabonde, Robert Bruce Mullin, Pamela Mullins Reaves, Saskia Murk Jansen, Heleen L. Murre-Van den Berg, Augustine Musopole, Isaac M. T. Mwase, Philomena Mwaura, Cecilia Nahnfeldt, Anne Nasimiyu Wasike, Carmiña Navia Velasco, Thulani Ndlazi, Alexander Negrov, James B. Nelson, David G. Newcombe, Carol Newsom, Helen J. Nicholson, George W. E. Nickelsburg, Tatyana Nikolskaya, Damayanthi M. A. Niles, Bertil Nilsson, Nyambura Njoroge, Fidelis Nkomazana, Mary Beth Norton, Christian Nottmeier, Sonene Nyawo, Anthère Nzabatsinda, Edward T. Oakes, Gerald O'Collins, Daniel O'Connell, David W. Odell-Scott, Mercy Amba Oduyoye, Kathleen O'Grady, Oyeronke Olajubu, Thomas O'Loughlin, Dennis T. Olson, J. Steven O'Malley, Cephas N. Omenyo, Muriel Orevillo-Montenegro, César Augusto Ornellas Ramos, Agbonkhianmeghe E. Orobator, Kenan B. Osborne, Carolyn Osiek, Javier Otaola Montagne, Douglas F. Ottati, Anna May Say Pa, Irina Paert, Jerry G. Pankhurst, Aristotle Papanikolaou, Samuele F. Pardini, Stefano Parenti, Peter Paris, Sung Bae Park, Cristián G. Parker, Raquel Pastor, Joseph Pathrapankal, Daniel Patte, W. Brown Patterson, Clive Pearson, Keith F. Pecklers, Nancy Cardoso Pereira, David Horace Perkins, Pheme Perkins, Edward N. Peters, Rebecca Todd Peters, Bishop Yeznik Petrossian, Raymond Pfister, Peter C. Phan, Isabel Apawo Phiri, William S. F. Pickering, Derrick G. Pitard, William Elvis Plata, Zlatko Plese, John Plummer, James Newton Poling, Ronald Popivchak, Andrew Porter, Ute Possekel, James M. Powell, Enos Das Pradhan, Devadasan Premnath, Jaime Adrían Prieto Valladares, Anne Primavesi, Randall Prior, María Alicia Puente Lutteroth, Eduardo Guzmão Quadros, Albert Rabil, Laurent William Ramambason, Apolonio M. Ranche, Vololona Randriamanantena Andriamitandrina, Lawrence R. Rast, Paul L. Redditt, Adele Reinhartz, Rolf Rendtorff, Pål Repstad, James N. Rhodes, John K. Riches, Joerg Rieger, Sharon H. Ringe, Sandra Rios, Tyler Roberts, David M. Robinson, James M. Robinson, Joanne Maguire Robinson, Richard A. H. Robinson, Roy R. Robson, Jack B. Rogers, Maria Roginska, Sidney Rooy, Rev. Garnett Roper, Maria José Fontelas Rosado-Nunes, Andrew C. Ross, Stefan Rossbach, François Rossier, John D. Roth, John K. Roth, Phillip Rothwell, Richard E. Rubenstein, Rosemary Radford Ruether, Markku Ruotsila, John E. Rybolt, Risto Saarinen, John Saillant, Juan Sanchez, Wagner Lopes Sanchez, Hugo N. Santos, Gerhard Sauter, Gloria L. Schaab, Sandra M. Schneiders, Quentin J. Schultze, Fernando F. Segovia, Turid Karlsen Seim, Carsten Selch Jensen, Alan P. F. Sell, Frank C. Senn, Kent Davis Sensenig, Damían Setton, Bal Krishna Sharma, Carolyn J. Sharp, Thomas Sheehan, N. Gerald Shenk, Christian Sheppard, Charles Sherlock, Tabona Shoko, Walter B. Shurden, Marguerite Shuster, B. Mark Sietsema, Batara Sihombing, Neil Silberman, Clodomiro Siller, Samuel Silva-Gotay, Heikki Silvet, John K. Simmons, Hagith Sivan, James C. Skedros, Abraham Smith, Ashley A. Smith, Ted A. Smith, Daud Soesilo, Pia Søltoft, Choan-Seng (C. S.) Song, Kathryn Spink, Bryan Spinks, Eric O. Springsted, Nicolas Standaert, Brian Stanley, Glen H. Stassen, Karel Steenbrink, Stephen J. Stein, Andrea Sterk, Gregory E. Sterling, Columba Stewart, Jacques Stewart, Robert B. Stewart, Cynthia Stokes Brown, Ken Stone, Anne Stott, Elizabeth Stuart, Monya Stubbs, Marjorie Hewitt Suchocki, David Kwang-sun Suh, Scott W. Sunquist, Keith Suter, Douglas Sweeney, Charles H. Talbert, Shawqi N. Talia, Elsa Tamez, Joseph B. Tamney, Jonathan Y. Tan, Yak-Hwee Tan, Kathryn Tanner, Feiya Tao, Elizabeth S. Tapia, Aquiline Tarimo, Claire Taylor, Mark Lewis Taylor, Bishop Abba Samuel Wolde Tekestebirhan, Eugene TeSelle, M. Thomas Thangaraj, David R. Thomas, Andrew Thornley, Scott Thumma, Marcelo Timotheo da Costa, George E. “Tink” Tinker, Ola Tjørhom, Karen Jo Torjesen, Iain R. Torrance, Fernando Torres-Londoño, Archbishop Demetrios [Trakatellis], Marit Trelstad, Christine Trevett, Phyllis Trible, Johannes Tromp, Paul Turner, Robert G. Tuttle, Archbishop Desmond Tutu, Peter Tyler, Anders Tyrberg, Justin Ukpong, Javier Ulloa, Camillus Umoh, Kristi Upson-Saia, Martina Urban, Monica Uribe, Elochukwu Eugene Uzukwu, Richard Vaggione, Gabriel Vahanian, Paul Valliere, T. J. Van Bavel, Steven Vanderputten, Peter Van der Veer, Huub Van de Sandt, Louis Van Tongeren, Luke A. Veronis, Noel Villalba, Ramón Vinke, Tim Vivian, David Voas, Elena Volkova, Katharina von Kellenbach, Elina Vuola, Timothy Wadkins, Elaine M. Wainwright, Randi Jones Walker, Dewey D. Wallace, Jerry Walls, Michael J. Walsh, Philip Walters, Janet Walton, Jonathan L. Walton, Wang Xiaochao, Patricia A. Ward, David Harrington Watt, Herold D. Weiss, Laurence L. Welborn, Sharon D. Welch, Timothy Wengert, Traci C. West, Merold Westphal, David Wetherell, Barbara Wheeler, Carolinne White, Jean-Paul Wiest, Frans Wijsen, Terry L. Wilder, Felix Wilfred, Rebecca Wilkin, Daniel H. Williams, D. Newell Williams, Michael A. Williams, Vincent L. Wimbush, Gabriele Winkler, Anders Winroth, Lauri Emílio Wirth, James A. Wiseman, Ebba Witt-Brattström, Teofil Wojciechowski, John Wolffe, Kenman L. Wong, Wong Wai Ching, Linda Woodhead, Wendy M. Wright, Rose Wu, Keith E. Yandell, Gale A. Yee, Viktor Yelensky, Yeo Khiok-Khng, Gustav K. K. Yeung, Angela Yiu, Amos Yong, Yong Ting Jin, You Bin, Youhanna Nessim Youssef, Eliana Yunes, Robert Michael Zaller, Valarie H. Ziegler, Barbara Brown Zikmund, Joyce Ann Zimmerman, Aurora Zlotnik, Zhuo Xinping
- Edited by Daniel Patte, Vanderbilt University, Tennessee
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- The Cambridge Dictionary of Christianity
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- 05 August 2012
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- 20 September 2010, pp xi-xliv
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PART TWO - CONTINGENT SELECTION AND SYSTEMATIC EFFECTS: COUNTRY-LEVEL ANALYSES OF ELITE SELECTION, IDEATIONAL CHANGE, AND INSTITUTIONAL CHOICE, 1991–2000
- Keith A. Darden, Yale University, Connecticut
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- Economic Liberalism and Its Rivals
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- 29 July 2009
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- 02 February 2009, pp 119-124
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Summary
The next four chapters chart the changes in economic ideas in each of the 15 post-Soviet states over the first 10 years of their independence, and their purpose is to demonstrate contingency in the selection of ideas and the systematic effects of officials' ideas on policy and institutional choice. To do this, the chapters trace the leadership changes in each country during the 1990s, identify the economic ideas prevalent in each of the governments, and show how these ideas manifest in each country's choice of international trade institutions, as well as macroeconomic, privatization, and energy policies. To make the case for contingency, the chapters highlight the idiosyncratic, nonsystematic factors determining the selection of economic ideas – and hence the exogeneity of those ideas. Second, they show the systematic effect of economic ideas on political preferences and institutional choice. Before moving to the empirical studies, let us briefly examine the logic of the argument and the methods used for making this case in the post-Soviet context.
THE CASE FOR CONTINGENCY OF SELECTION
As noted in Chapter 1, contingency is inherently a part of ideational selection. In the post-Soviet states in particular, the contingency of idea selection was heightened by a combination of political institutions that gave individual leaders a great deal of authority, as well as idiosyncratic features of the process by which the region's leaders came to power and by which they came to hold their ideas.
10 - Smoking Guns: A Causal History of Institutional Choice
- Keith A. Darden, Yale University, Connecticut
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- Economic Liberalism and Its Rivals
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- 29 July 2009
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- 02 February 2009, pp 261-305
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One extraneous movement is sufficient to smash the vase into thousands of pieces.
Colossal efforts are needed to glue it back together.
Nigmatzhan Isingarin, first deputy prime minister of KazakhstanThe evidence presented in the previous chapter demonstrates that there is a strong association between economic ideas and institutional choices that is very unlikely to have occurred by chance. But as important as it is to demonstrate that ideas and institutions are closely associated, it is vital to demonstrate precisely how they are tied, and to show that the economic ideas did not merely coincide with the institutions, but were directly implicated in the decisions of leading government officials to create, join, or reject different international economic institutions. To do this, we need to deepen our investigation – to identify the key actors, demonstrate their motivations and intentions, and draw on subtle patterns in the timing and sequence of events to show causation.
The purpose of this chapter is to draw on a broad range of data sources – wherever possible relying on internal government documents and direct interviews with officials – to reconstruct the process by which institutional choices were made across the decade as a whole. In a region where most governments still place a premium on secrecy, it is no small task to trace the process by which critical decisions were made.
4 - Liberalism and Its Rivals: History, Typology, and Measurement
- Keith A. Darden, Yale University, Connecticut
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- Economic Liberalism and Its Rivals
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- 29 July 2009
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- 02 February 2009, pp 84-118
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We have here a tolerably decided contrast between bodies-politic and individual bodies; and it is one which we should keep constantly in view. For it reminds us that while, in individual bodies, the welfare of all other parts is rightly subservient to the welfare of the nervous system… in bodies-politic the same thing does not hold, or holds to but a very slight extent. It is well that the lives of all parts of an animal should be merged in the life of the whole, because the whole has a corporate consciousness capable of happiness or misery. But it is not so with a society; since its living units do not and cannot lose individual consciousness, and since the community as a whole has not corporate consciousness. This is an everlasting reason why the welfare of citizens cannot rightly be sacrificed to some supposed benefit of the State, and why, on the other hand, the State is to be maintained solely for the benefit of the citizens. The corporate life must here be subservient to the lives of the parts, instead of the lives of the parts being subservient to the corporate life.
Now that we have a good sense of the international institutional choices made by the states in the region over the first decade of their independence, let us turn to the ideas. To do so, we take a historical turn, since each of the ideas found in the region has a long pedigree.
Acknowledgments
- Keith A. Darden, Yale University, Connecticut
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- Economic Liberalism and Its Rivals
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Appendix A - Measurement and Coding of Economic Ideas – Additional Tests
- Keith A. Darden, Yale University, Connecticut
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- Economic Liberalism and Its Rivals
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- 02 February 2009, pp 317-320
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As a way of checking the ideational coding, as well as experimenting with alternative means for coding ideas, I created another set of indicators in addition to libgov, integgov, and mercgov. These indicators were based on a coding of all causal statements by economic officials in the U.S. Government's Foreign Broadcast Information Service (FBIS) database of translated newspaper articles, radio broadcasts, and television broadcasts in 1992, 1994, 1996, and 1998. There are several sources of bias in the FBIS database that could affect the analysis. First, FBIS does not select all articles or broadcasts for all countries in the period. It often selects articles on the basis of requests of the U.S. government agencies and contractors that it serves. As a result, the principles of article selection are not explicit and conversations with FBIS staff suggest that the selection criteria for articles have varied over time. Second, country coverage was not even and the FBIS articles heavily favor Russia and Ukraine. Indeed, it was not even possible to code Tajikistan because there were virtually no causal statements by Tajik economic officials recorded in the FBIS dataset. Finally, because all of the statements have appeared in the country's media, the editorial policies of national media also have an important influence on the range of ideas expressed in the sample. Because the media in these countries were generally more liberal than officialdom and because the U.S. government agencies were interested in the adoption of liberal reforms, we would expect there to be a liberal bias in the FBIS dataset.
11 - Conclusions and Implications of the Analysis
- Keith A. Darden, Yale University, Connecticut
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- Economic Liberalism and Its Rivals
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- 02 February 2009, pp 306-316
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It is evident, that all the sciences have a relation, greater or less, to human nature; and that however wide any of them may seem to run from it, they still return back by one passage or another.
David Hume, A Treatise of Human NatureThis book has run a long course, charting the politics of 15 states across a decade; let us now return to the larger questions that lie at its core.
Let us begin by answering the empirical question that we started with: why did the 15 post-Soviet states, which were so similar upon achieving independence in 1991, choose such different international institutions to manage their economic relations with other states? The evidence presented in the previous chapters suggests that a government's decision to pursue membership in international trade institutions was rooted in its economic ideas. Different economic ideas led government officials to different views on the policies needed to achieve economic efficiency and growth and, as a result, to prefer different international institutions. Ultimately, the three institutional trajectories we find among the post-Soviet states can be traced to differences in the economic ideas of government officials.
To make this case we first identified the main economic ideologies in the region using traditional interpretive methods – involving more than 200 interviews with post-Soviet officials and a study of Soviet economic texts. From this analysis, three sets of economic ideas stood in sharp relief, each with clear implications for institutional choice.
6 - Russia, Belarus, and Ukraine
- Keith A. Darden, Yale University, Connecticut
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- Economic Liberalism and Its Rivals
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The three Slavic states, both individually and in comparison, also provide excellent material for testing the argument that economic ideas drive international institutional choice. We should not overstate the prospects for controlled comparison of the group despite the fact that the three states were carved out of a single country and had been unified for more than 300 years. Russia's distinctiveness – its large size, its nuclear forces, its oil and gas reserves, its international presence, its absorption of the Soviet bureaucracy, elite, and economic institutions after 1991 – obviously limits its utility for isolating causal factors through paired comparisons with its Slavic neighbors. But given the undeniably idiosyncratic and practically stochastic nature of President Boris Yeltsin's personnel changes, and the high level of variation over time in the economic ideas holding sway in the government, Russia on its own provides the means for a formidable test and demonstration of the argument in action. Indeed, Russia's nearly constant turnover in officials and the resultant shifts among economic ideologies over time make the country a laboratory unto itself if we take a longitudinal approach.
And whatever difficulties Russia may present in terms of its comparability with other cases are happily compensated for by Ukraine and Belarus, which provide extraordinary leverage in comparison. The similarities between the two countries are remarkable; it is as if the republics were designed specifically for the purpose of controlled experimentation for the effects of differences in economic ideas of the leadership.
List of Figures and Tables
- Keith A. Darden, Yale University, Connecticut
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- Economic Liberalism and Its Rivals
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- 02 February 2009, pp vii-viii
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Contents
- Keith A. Darden, Yale University, Connecticut
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- Economic Liberalism and Its Rivals
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- 29 July 2009
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- 02 February 2009, pp v-vi
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Economic Liberalism and Its Rivals
- The Formation of International Institutions among the Post-Soviet States
- Keith A. Darden
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- 29 July 2009
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- 02 February 2009
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Examines the critical role that the economic ideas of state leaders play in the creation and maintenance of the international economic order. Drawing on a detailed study of the fifteen post-Soviet states in their first decade of independence, interviews with key decision-makers and the use of closed ministerial archives, the book explores how the changing ideas of state officials led countries to follow one of three institutional paths: rapid entry into the World Trade Organization, participation in a regional Customs Union based on their prior Soviet ties, or autarky and economic closure. In doing so, the book traces the decisions that shaped the entry of these strategically important countries into the world economy and provides a novel theory of the role of ideas in international politics.
5 - The Baltic States and Moldova
- Keith A. Darden, Yale University, Connecticut
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- Economic Liberalism and Its Rivals
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- 02 February 2009, pp 125-149
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At first blush, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, and Moldova would appear to be ideal cases for the argument that countries with stronger national identities redirect their trade and institutional ties away from Russia and toward global multilateral or Western institutions. The four countries had a shorter spell as part of the USSR; they were incorporated only after World War II. Each country had a strong nationalist movement that came to power in the Supreme Soviet elections of 1990, and each subsequently boycotted the March 1991 referendum on the preservation of the USSR on the grounds that their countries were forcibly annexed and never recognized the legitimacy of the Soviet rule. And if we look at institutional membership at the end of 2001, these countries all also look fairly similar in their institutional choices; all four countries had secured membership in the WTO.
But to draw conclusions simply on the basis of the conjuncture of evidently strong nationalist sentiments in 1990 and institutional membership as it stood in 2001 would be an error for two reasons. First and foremost, the fact that these countries had strong nationalist movements and also, ultimately, all joined liberal international trade institutions begs the empirical question of whether and how nationalism was linked to institutional choice. Second, a look only at the end of the period elides important variation within these countries over the decade.
8 - Central Asia
- Keith A. Darden, Yale University, Connecticut
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- Economic Liberalism and Its Rivals
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- 02 February 2009, pp 200-228
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In Central Asia, we see a much stronger case and one squarely consistent with the theory. For one, the separation between the selection of leaders and the selection of economic ideas is starker than anywhere else in the former Soviet Union. This is true for the simple reason that four of the five leaders were appointed while the Soviet Union was still in existence. Yet despite the fact that these leaders were not selected for their economic views, the ideas of those individual leaders came to be of particular importance because the extent of personal control over the state apparatus was so considerable. As a result, if the chapter tends more toward Kremlinology, drawing on the attributes of individual leaders, it is with good reason. The supreme power of the executive office in these countries renders the ideas, personal background, experience, and patronage ties of these leaders an important element of the explanation.
To capture this contingency, I describe how each leader came to power in order to make the case that the principles of selection had little to do with economic views. I then identify changes in the leaders' economic ideas over time and show the extent to which these ideas manifest in international institutional choice and economic policy.
UZBEKISTAN
Uzbekistan exhibits no changes in leadership and only one major shift in economic ideas during the decade, a turn from integralism to a form of mercantilism that occurs approximately at the end of 1993.
1 - A Natural Experiment
- Keith A. Darden, Yale University, Connecticut
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- Economic Liberalism and Its Rivals
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In 1921, after the Bolshevik forces defeated the White Armies of the Russian Empire and completed their reconquest of tsarist territories, they found themselves in control of a vast and heterogeneous swath of Eurasia. The inhabitants of their new dominion were overwhelmingly rural – primarily peasants or nomads – the vast majority of whom were unschooled, illiterate, and devoid of national identity, instead identifying themselves by their family, tribe, or village, or simply as “people from here.” Aside from the fact that they were all now subject to Soviet control, the peoples of Eurasia had very little in common with one another. They spoke more than 150 different languages and countless dialects. Most were linked to their countrymen by neither road nor rail. Heterogeneity, insularity, and isolation were the order of the day.
Seventy years of Soviet control changed all of that. Over the subsequent decades, the peasants and nomads were systematically collectivized, educated, electrified, urbanized, industrialized, nationalized, organized, terrorized, surveilled, and ruled in much the same way across the vast territory of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR). The result of this methodically imposed project in social and political engineering was that by 1991, whether one lived in Tashkent or Tula, one was governed by identical political institutions, participated in the same centrally planned economy, and studied similar types of texts in similar schools.
9 - Alternative Explanations and Statistical Tests
- Keith A. Darden, Yale University, Connecticut
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- Economic Liberalism and Its Rivals
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We now turn directly to the challenge of rival explanations. The purpose of this chapter is to test the argument that economic ideas drive institutional choice against the dominant alternative explanations for variation in support for international trade institutions. Drawing on both qualitative evidence and a novel cross-national time-series dataset covering the post-Soviet states from 1991 to 2000, this chapter finds little support for realist and liberal arguments and partial support for nationalism/identity-based arguments and finds that the estimated role of economic ideas on institutional choice is substantively significant, statistically significant, and robust. To make this case, I first assess the existing alternative explanations theoretically and methodologically, formulate their claims as testable hypotheses, and evaluate them using qualitative comparison where appropriate. Then, moving to a discussion of the statistical tests, I describe the relevant variables used to test these approaches and detail the methods used to identify the economic ideas of the governing elite. Finally, I present and interpret the statistical results.
EXISTING EXPLANATIONS: NATIONALISM AND IDENTITY
The increasing importance of national identity in constructivist theories of international relations has naturally led some scholars to ascribe the variation in the behavior of the post-Soviet states to differences in the strength or type of nationalist sentiment. When applied to Russia, these approaches suggest that Russia carries an imperial identity that leads it to push for the creation of regional institutions to reestablish its empire.
2 - A Theory of International Order
- Keith A. Darden, Yale University, Connecticut
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- Economic Liberalism and Its Rivals
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As discussed in the previous chapter, the primary empirical finding of this book is that a country's choice to pursue membership in the World Trade Organization, to focus primarily on regional trade institutions, or to take an autarkic path stems from the economic ideas of those who govern it. Why should we expect this to be the case? To what extent should the relationship between ideas and institutional choice hold more generally? To answer these questions, this chapter lays out a broader theoretical case for the relationships among ideas about causation, government choice, and international order. Applying this framework to the question of international economic order, I suggest that changes in international economic order, such as the rise of free trade at the end of the nineteenth century, the move toward autarky in the interwar period in Europe, the rapid increase in the liberalization of trade at the end of the twentieth century, or the creation of regional institutions in Europe and the post-Soviet states, are the aggregation of choices by individual governments, taken relatively independently of the decisions of other states, and based on their economic ideas.
The critiques of this position from liberal and realist theories are to be expected and are dealt with later in the book (Chapter 9). But in principle, one would expect that this argument could find easy theoretical grounding in constructivism, the large and growing branch of International Relations (IR) theory that privileges ideas in its explanation of international order.
Bibliography
- Keith A. Darden, Yale University, Connecticut
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- Economic Liberalism and Its Rivals
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3 - Three International Trajectories
- Keith A. Darden, Yale University, Connecticut
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- Economic Liberalism and Its Rivals
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The first step is to identify precisely what happened in the 10 years after the post-Soviet states became independent, i.e. to identify the variation in institutional choice. As discussed briefly in Chapter 1, the first post-Soviet decade brought marked differences in the institutions countries selected or created to manage their economic relations with other states, leading to three distinct international trajectories among countries in the region. One course was oriented to the pursuit of global multilateral liberalism – or nondiscriminatory and freer trade – exemplified by membership in the World Trade Organization. A second path led toward regionalism, or the active participation in economic institutions that privileged trade and economic ties among the former Soviet republics and sustained barriers to exchange with the rest of the world. The third road was toward autarky, or the reliance on national rather than international institutions for managing international economic exchange and the general closure of the economy through high tariffs, inconvertible currencies, or other restrictions.
Each of these institutional alternatives – the WTO, the CIS, and national autarky – entailed the adoption of a set of rules that significantly influenced international economic interaction and exchange, including rules governing the treatment of foreign enterprises, currency convertibility, the use of subsidiesm, and other aspects of the relationship between business and the state. Moreover, each alternative required that authority be allocated to a different set of decision-making institutions for establishing new sets of rules and standards related to international economic relations.
PART ONE - THEORY AND METHODOLOGY
- Keith A. Darden, Yale University, Connecticut
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- Economic Liberalism and Its Rivals
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Index
- Keith A. Darden, Yale University, Connecticut
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- Economic Liberalism and Its Rivals
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- 29 July 2009
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- 02 February 2009, pp 345-351
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